Reading Comprehension
The primary purpose of this website is to explain the importance of reading comprehension and share the same strategies and skills children learn in school. These strategies and skills can be applied while teaching the phonics and spelling lessons in Marvi's Way, other evidence-based reading programs, and whenever you read aloud with children. Here, you will learn how to support your children at home or become a more effective volunteer at school. You will learn how to effectively improve the reading skills of all children, including English learners, struggling readers, and children who speak African American vernacular English.
Because this guide covers many concepts necessary for reading comprehension, you might feel overwhelmed the first time you read it. However, understand that expertise develops with experience, knowledge, and practice. On every page of this section, you will learn key concepts to help you improve children's reading.
Whether you are working with your children at home or a school volunteer, put this information to use immediately. Start by working with only one or two children at a time. Because most of the struggling readers you encounter will need help with fluency, the first sessions might focus on this skill. First, determine the children's reading rate. If it is below their target rate, talk with the children's teachers or reading specialists and ask for recommendations for books the children can read independently.
It is not necessary to thoroughly learn the information presented here. However, if you are interested, rereading the content in each section will be worthwhile. Doing so will help you better understand and remember the concepts and content.
Five Key Concepts of Reading Comprehension
Reading with a high level of comprehension requires the following:
- Background knowledge
- Vocabulary development
- Reading comprehension strategies and skills
- Critical thinking
- Fluency
How to Improve the Reading Comprehension of Struggling Readers
What You Need to Know
One of the strongest predictors of reading comprehension in general and vocabulary development, in particular, is how much time children spend reading (Anderson et al., 1988; Anderson, 1992; Corson, 1995; Cunningham & Stanovich, 1998). Although reading aloud with children can help them develop their vocabulary, the importance of reading widely at increasingly challenging levels must be emphasized. Although often appropriate for building fluency, low vocabulary and decodable text are less likely to produce growth in academic language (the language of school). Children must read a great deal at school and home to obtain sufficient growth. Classroom and school-wide efforts to encourage wide reading require a synchronized plan to motivate and inspire children to read independently. Children who master reading skills early and read widely soar in their development. Those who are not fluent and lack foundational reading skills tend to avoid reading and quickly fall behind their reading peers (Coyne, Kame'enui, and Simmons, 2001; Juel, 1988; Nathan & Stanovich, 1991).
Decoding + Comprehension = Reading
Reading involves two simultaneous processes: decoding words seen in print and matching these words to their meanings. According to Philip Gough, a renowned reading researcher from the University of Texas at Austin, if children can recognize a word (know its meaning) after it has been decoded, they have read it. However, if they can sound out a word but do not know its meaning, the word has been decoded but not read. This fundamental concept is crucial when helping children enhance their reading comprehension.
Reading comprehension hinges on quick and automatic decoding and word recognition. Proficient readers must swiftly decode and understand the words they read, preserving their short-term memory for comprehending the passage. Children who struggle with word pronunciation expend all their short-term memory on decoding, leaving little room for interpreting the author's message. Thus, comprehension suffers. When children encounter difficulties with word recognition and decoding, the information in the Vocabulary Development and Phonics and Spelling sections will provide insights into your children's struggles.
(Read the 2007 Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools, page 23.)
Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension is the ability to process written text, understand its meaning, and integrate it with what the reader already knows.
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Background Knowledge and Reading Comprehension
The Role of Background Knowledge
Background knowledge about the subject being read is vital to reading comprehension. It's not just any knowledge but the unique experiences and knowledge of the subject that children bring. Background knowledge helps make the text clear and discernible. For example, it would be difficult to appreciate or visualize the descriptions of a winter setting or imagine the feeling of gloveless, cold, and icy fingers if you had never encountered snow. In contrast, children from Chicago could easily imagine the chill of a winter storm, snowdrifts, and shimmering icicles hanging from trees and buildings.
This does not mean children should only read books that correspond to what they already know. On the contrary, it is through books that children learn about the world beyond their familiar surroundings and experiences. To facilitate reading comprehension, it is essential to determine the children's background knowledge. Before they read, talk about the book's subject. Determine what they know about the topic. Discover if the children have had any related experiences. If there are critical gaps in their knowledge, don't worry. Use pictures, watch a video, and provide explanations to fill the gaps. Doing so will expand the children's background knowledge and pique their interest in the content of the new reading material or the story's plot.
Whether reading to children at home or as a school volunteer, supporting children's reading comprehension is crucial. It is good to check with the classroom teacher to learn what the children are studying. Coordinate reading material with the children's teachers, matching selections with subjects taught in the classroom. Having the children read text that matches what is being studied in school will allow them to actively and knowledgeably participate in classroom discussions. If topics are explored before they are introduced in the classroom, children will be better prepared to master lessons and gain confidence in their learning ability.
Expanding Horizons
Children should not limit themselves to reading only about familiar topics. Books serve as windows to worlds beyond their immediate surroundings, offering opportunities to broaden their understanding. To enhance reading comprehension, assessing the children’s background knowledge is essential. Engage them in discussions about the subject matter before reading and identify what they already know and any relevant experiences. Address any knowledge gaps through visuals, videos, and explanations to enrich their background knowledge and foster their curiosity about new reading materials and storylines.
Marvi's Way: A Guide to Reading and Spelling is a downloadable reading and spelling program for parents and guardians. Each module comes with two separate workbooks (tutor and student versions) that guide users through 126 detailed lessons step by step. You do not need to be an expert; you will learn to teach reading and spelling as you work through the lessons with your children.
Vocabulary Development for Reading Comprehension
Vocabulary Development
Research has revealed how reading comprehension and school success depend on children's vocabulary knowledge. The broader their vocabulary, the more likely they will succeed in school. Its importance for English learners, struggling readers, and children who speak African American vernacular English cannot be overemphasized. This section will teach you how to promote children's vocabulary development.
As stated above, developing an extensive vocabulary is essential for reading comprehension. The primary means for broadening children's vocabulary is reading lots and lots of books, magazines, and other material. The more children read, the greater the number of words they will encounter and learn.
Academic Language
Familiarity with academic language is critical. The term "academic language refers to the language of literacy and books, tests, and formal writing." (2007 Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools, p.22) It is the language of school. The words children encounter in literature and at school are more complex than everyday conversation. For instance, grammar, mathematics, science, and history books contain unfamiliar words, phrases, and idioms with complicated sentence structures. Authors write in a variety of styles and forms. Children need to become acquainted with the language of books and school.
Reading teachers know that the words carrying the most meaning in a passage (such as delicate, humiliated, and essential) are not commonly used in everyday speech. This is one reason children need to read a variety of books. Academic words are rarely used in daily conversation or recreational reading material. Yet, they are words children need to learn to understand the content taught in school. Similarly, if children do not understand the language of school and the words they encounter in their textbooks, they will be at a loss to thoroughly learn the subject matter taught in the classroom.
Because most word meanings are learned from multiple exposures in context, and poor readers read fewer books than better readers, there is often a significant gap between the number of words good and poor readers know (the Mathew Effect). Direct instruction in the skills good readers use to recognize words can help struggling readers overcome their deficits.
How Good Readers Determine Word Meaning
To broaden children's vocabulary, encourage them to point out unfamiliar words as they read. Encourage them to ask questions about troublesome phrases and sentences. Children must learn to clarify information in the text. Find opportunities to teach strategies good readers use to figure out words and phrases. These strategies include:
Using Contextual Clues: If children do not know the meaning of a word, say, "Do you think the author may have given us a clue about what this word means? Let's see if we can find a phrase or sentence that will help us better understand this word." Have them reread sentences before and after the word and look for contextual clues.
Rereading the Passage: If children do not know the passage's meaning, say, "Try rereading this section. Good readers sometimes need to reread sentences and paragraphs to determine what a word means or understand what the author is saying."
Recognizing When a Selection Is Confusing and Finding the Source of the Problem: Occasionally, children skip words, phrases, or sentences. They might continue to read without realizing or considering whether the words they read make sense. At other times, the author may be the source of the confusion. The text may not have been written clearly. Children should be encouraged to self-monitor their understanding, clarify the text, and reread whenever necessary.
Using Resources: If children do not know the meaning of a word and using contextual clues is not helpful, say, "Are you familiar with this word? What resource could you use to find out what this word means?" Possible resources include a dictionary, thesaurus, glossary, their teachers, and you.
Demonstrate the above strategies to motivate children and encourage them to apply the strategies good readers use.
Multiple exposures to the same word are necessary before it becomes fixed in long-term memory. To ensure children will encounter meaningful but infrequently used words enough times to remember them, they must read extensive amounts of literature. Additionally, the genre and types of literature children read should vary from fiction, nonfiction, and expository texts to magazines and newspapers. Children should be encouraged to incorporate new words they learn into their daily speech and writing. Because the chances of remembering sophisticated words and terminology are enhanced through repeated use, have children keep lists of words they are learning and note when they use them. The more words and phrases children understand, the easier they can comprehend complex written material.
It is also helpful for children to study meaning-based prefixes (e.g., re, in, un, pre, mis, con, mono, and hypo), suffixes (e.g., ed, ist, ment, tion, al, and ology), and root words (e.g., gym, cent, and photo). These meaningful syllables or word parts often have Latin or Greek origins. Explain the meanings of common prefixes and suffixes. This knowledge will help determine the meanings of many words. It will be especially beneficial when the children study science and mathematics. Scientific terminology frequently uses words or word parts from other languages. For example, monolingual is a term with Latin and Greek origins. Mono means one, and lingual means language; the meaningful prefix tri also has Latin and Greek origins. If children learn that tri means three, the meanings of triple, triangle, tricycle, and triathlon will be easier to understand.
Developing a broad vocabulary and ensuring children are comfortable with academic language should be emphasized. Children become familiar with and comfortable with academic language when exposed to various reading materials. (Books chosen to improve reading fluency may contain less vocabulary and textual complexity to produce growth in academic language.)
Caution must be taken to ensure that the purpose of each reading lesson is carefully and thoughtfully considered when working with children on improving their reading skills. When improving reading rate, the emphasis should be on improving decoding skills and developing automaticity and fluency. When working on comprehension, word and text meaning, as well as reading aloud with prosody, should be the focus of the instruction.
Vocabulary Development
Reading comprehension and success in school are dependent upon children's vocabulary knowledge.
Read more...
Marvi's Way: A Guide to Reading and Spelling is a downloadable reading and spelling program for parents and guardians. Each module comes with two separate workbooks (tutor and student versions) that guide users through 126 detailed lessons step by step. You do not need to be an expert; you will learn to teach reading and spelling as you work through the lessons with your children.
Reading Comprehension Strategies and Skills
In this section, you will learn how to help children use reading comprehension strategies and skills to understand what they are reading. Strategies and skills can be taught during read-aloud sessions before children can read independently. The content described here is an overview of what children learn in school. Strategies and skills are formally taught beginning in kindergarten. They will be taught in more depth throughout elementary and middle school. Difficulty levels naturally increase as the texts children read become more complex. When appropriate, encourage children to write about what they have read using these strategies and skills to shore up reading comprehension.
All children can benefit from direct instruction on the strategies and skills good readers use while reading. Some will require substantial practice and reinforcement before they can apply them independently. Reinforce the value of using essential reading comprehension strategies and skills each time one is introduced or successfully used. To illustrate, when teaching the strategy summarization, tell children that this strategy will help them better understand what the author is saying. Then, when children successfully summarize a specific section of a book or story, say, "You summarized this passage very well. You showed you understood the author's words by identifying the most important parts of this selection." Help children realize that actively thinking about what they are reading will improve their comprehension.
Reading passages differ in levels of complexity. It is more than just word or sentence length that makes some text challenging. For example, narratives often are easier to read than informational or expository text. Reading material that is technical or has language specific to a field of study or business may be challenging to understand if the reader is unfamiliar with the language or jargon used by the author. Good readers learn how to navigate a variety of reading material. They constantly monitor their understanding and know when and how to use comprehension strategies and skills when encountering problems.
Reading strategies and skills can be introduced in kindergarten. Refrain from assuming that older children are fully versed in these concepts. When working with children, introduce one strategy or skill at a time. Demonstrate how and when each should be used. As the text is read, think aloud so children can learn good readers' thoughts while reading. This method is called modeling. When you share your thoughts aloud, you explicitly demonstrate that reading is more than sounding out words.
Reading involves understanding what the author is saying. Appropriate times to think aloud are:
- To resolve a comprehension problem by using a particular reading strategy
- To examine specific content or details by applying a specific reading skill (see examples below).
Children should say their thoughts aloud. Thinking aloud helps them learn how and when to use a strategy or skill. Additionally, knowing what the children are thinking is essential to supporting the effective use of these strategies and skills. Explain that it is impossible to read minds, so the children must share their thoughts aloud as the passage is read.
The following list of reading comprehension strategies and skills are discussed in this section:
Strategies:
- Establishing the purpose of reading
- Predicting and confirming predictions
- Making connections
- Wondering
- Visualizing
- Clarifying
- Summarizing
Skills:
- Reflecting upon how the text made the reader feel and why
- Comparing and contrasting
- Listing essential elements or details
- Placing events in sequential order
- Categorizing
- Distinguishing facts from opinions
- Making inferences
- Conjecturing
- Understanding cause and effect
- Identifying main ideas and finding supporting details
Strategies are introduced the first time the children read a selection. Skills are taught the second time the same story or text is read. Each time a strategy or skill is taught, be sure to explain:
- What the strategy or skill is
- How and why it is used
- When to use it.
Encourage children to practice each strategy (or skill) several times before teaching the next. Children should review and practice using the strategies and skills they have learned. This does not mean that children should practice everything. Focus on the children's weaknesses, letting them take responsibility for using strategies and skills that have been mastered. When appropriate, make suggestions about which strategy or skill they should use. Keep records of which strategies and skills the children can readily use and which still need to be learned.
The responsibility for using the strategies and skills described in the next section should gradually be transferred to the children. Choose text carefully and provide many opportunities for children to use the strategies and skills they have learned.
Reading Strategies
A strategy is an organizing principle used to solve problems. Focus on reading strategies the first time children read a selection:
Establish the Purpose for Reading
Before reading a selection, help children determine its purpose (recreation, information, or both). After deciding the objectives, children will be better prepared to evaluate the text or determine if the book or story meets their needs. Setting reading goals helps pique children's interest and prepares them to look for and gather important information from the text.
Predict and Confirm Predictions
When reading fiction, encourage children to predict what might happen next as they read the story. Thinking ahead will help them prepare for new information. Have the children consider events in the story and encourage them to suggest what might happen next. Then, say, "Often, the author gives us clues in the story to help us predict future events. What clues did you use that helped you anticipate the next event?" Children should be able to pinpoint the clues in the text that helped them make the prediction.
While reading, children should look for information or clues that confirm or refute their predictions. As the story progresses, keep track of the children's predictions and have them determine if they were correct. Periodically, ask them if they would like to revise an earlier prediction. Caution: This strategy can be overused. Use it only when appropriate or when children wonder what will happen next in the story.
Make Connections
Occasionally, reading helps us remember past experiences, people, things, events, or other books and stories we have read. Encourage children to discuss these personal memories when they occur. Reading is dynamic. Discussing connections to prior learning or experiences is a way of helping children become active learners.
Wonder
As children read, their curiosity should be heightened. Wondering involves asking questions and seeking answers. It helps them learn. Demonstrate wondering aloud. For example, when something surprising happens in a story, say, "I am surprised the character…I wonder why..."
Sometimes, children will find the answers to their questions in the text. When children ask a factual question, encourage them to research the answer if it isn't found in the reading selection. Suggest possible sources and be sure they follow through with the research. For example, if reading a story about a character who sees its shadow, help the children find an explanation online that briefly describes how shadows are formed.
Visualize
Visualizing characters, settings, and concepts stimulates imagination and helps children comprehend the text. The images people see in their minds as they read are often similar, but no two people see the same picture. After a character or scene has been discussed, stop and ask the children to translate the author's words into a picture in their minds. Have them describe the colors and images they see. Because complex processes and events, such as those found in informational/expository text, are challenging to understand, creating visual aids (such as illustrations, maps, or diagrams) can help improve comprehension.
Clarify
Good readers constantly ask themselves, "Does this make sense?" They self-monitor understanding and stop whenever they become confused. When they realize the text does not make sense, they consciously try to determine the problem. They are willing to spend as much time as they need to correct the confusion. Reasons for confusion vary:
- A word or sentence was skipped.
- The children didn’t understand the terminology.
- The children required more background knowledge.
- The author did not explain the information well.
- The text was misleading and included extraneous or inaccurate information.
- The children were distracted and lost concentration.
Occasionally, ask questions to determine if the children understand the text. Use every opportunity to help them clarify the information by discussing possible reasons for the confusion.
Summarize
Summarizing requires children to focus on the most critical information in the text and describe what has been read concisely. (It is not a retelling.) Encourage them to summarize anytime they feel the need to review. Summarizing is a valuable strategy children can employ after they have been interrupted (for instance, the children encounter a word they do not recognize and need to decode the word or look up its meaning in the dictionary).
Summing up what they have read will help children reconnect with the text. Because they are required to put the information into their own words, they must evaluate how much they understand. If, after summarizing, children realize they have missed some crucial details or are unsure what the author is saying, they should back up and reread.
Reading Strategies
A strategy is an organizing principle used to solve problems.
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Reading Skills
Comprehension skills are used to analyze content. Focus on reading skills the second time children read a selection. The skills described below will help them notice details they may have missed the first time the story was read.
Reflect Upon How the Text Made the Reader Feel and Why
As children read, they will experience a variety of thoughts, opinions, and emotions. Reading is a personal activity, and children will respond differently depending on their experiences and individual personalities. Encourage children to express their feelings as a selection is read. Children should be able to identify the events, descriptions, or actions that evoked their emotions or helped them form opinions.
Compare and Contrast
Discussions concerning how characters, events, and scenes are similar and how they differ help children focus on content. Similarities and differences can range from easy, such as describing physical appearances (color, shape, and size), to complicated, such as characterizing abstract descriptions (ideas, attitudes, behaviors, motivations, and beliefs).
Examples of words authors use when making comparisons are same, like, as, and also. When contrasting, authors use the terms but, although, and unlike. While children read, find examples where the author uses these words and point them out. Later, ask the children to find words the author used to compare and contrast.
Children should be encouraged to extend this analysis beyond a particular story or text whenever possible. For example, children could compare and contrast characters, plots, or themes that occurred in different books. Talk about the characters after reading two or three books from the same genre (such as fable, mystery, or autobiography). Write the names of the main characters on a sheet of paper. Beneath each name, make a list of words that describe them. Using the list, determine which characteristics are alike across stories and which are different.
List Important Elements or Details
Listing important details helps children focus on the text’s content. Some children will have problems discriminating between essential and insignificant information. Identifying the most critical elements within the text helps them understand the main idea and may also help them prepare for tests.
Place Events in Sequential Order
If children pay attention to the sequence in which the author recounts events, they will better understand the author’s train of thought. Organizing events from beginning to end requires children to think about logical transitions. Children should look for word clues that help indicate time and order. The words to look for include:
First, next, last, before, after, now, during, once, and then.
Writers present information in various ways. Occasionally, an author will start a story by describing the last event. Tell children that authors only sometimes relate events in order from first to last.
Categorize
Classifying terms, objects, and ideas can help children understand basic relationships and concepts. Use books, magazines, and science articles (for instance, the National Geographic for Kids and Ducksters) to find examples of things children can categorize, such as animals (dogs, cats, and birds), plants (fruits and vegetables), or inorganic materials (rocks and minerals). Once the strategy is understood, expand to more complex subjects, such as listing honest and truthful characters and characters who were not. Children should explain their logic for the classification.
Distinguish Facts from Opinions
Children need to learn to differentiate a fact (what is accurate, an actual event, or a detail known to be confirmed) from an opinion (an unsubstantiated judgment). When reading expository text, look for examples of factual statements. Opinions may be defined as something a person thinks that is true. They are an expression of an individual's belief.
Help children distinguish facts from opinions by carefully examining the text and asking, " How do you know this statement is true?" Can you find clues in this paragraph (or text) that will help determine if this statement is factual? Good readers look for reliable sources (resource books or experts) to assess the validity of a statement. When it is difficult to distinguish a fact from an opinion, help children find the answer by looking for citations or references, consulting a reliable internet source or an encyclopedia, or finding another book about the same subject.
Make Inferences
Authors of fiction do not always directly communicate meaning. They provide the reader with clues that must be interpreted (symbolism). In other words, the reader must deduce what the author is trying to convey. Descriptions, metaphors, examples, or storylines embedded in the plot offer clues to deeper meanings. For example, an author probably wouldn't say, "Tom was hungry." Instead, he might talk about Tom's growling stomach or describe how his mouth was watering as he eyed the cherry pie. When reading text, children should look for inferences (for example, to discover why a character behaved in a certain way or to develop reasonable conclusions about the moral of a story).
Making inferences requires readers to connect to what they have read and generalize the information. Think of it as reading between the lines.
Conjecture
A conjecture is an educated guess based on inconclusive and incomplete evidence. This skill differs from inference because children must find facts upon which to base their assumptions. For example, children might be encouraged to speculate about a character's motives or future actions based on events that have already happened.
Understand Cause and Effect
Reasons and consequences are another way of thinking about cause and effect. Help children look for examples of cause and effect by discussing a specific character's conduct or behavior and following the events that occur. Ask questions, such as, "Why do you think the character...? Can you find a passage in the text that can help explain your opinion?" Understanding cause and effect helps children notice how an incident or action can trigger a new or different reaction. Children must always be able to support their answers by referring to specific facts or details from the story or passage.
Identify Main Ideas and Find Supporting Details
Children will find it helpful to focus on the main ideas when reading for information and trying to learn and understand complex content. Identifying which children can recognize main ideas is one way to determine which children can readily comprehend text and which may need additional instruction.
Understanding the main idea in a paragraph can be challenging. Typically, the first sentence in a paragraph serves as the topic sentence. However, this is only sometimes the case, as the topic sentence may be located within or at the end. Sometimes, the main idea may only be implied, requiring the reader to infer it. When teaching children to identify main ideas, starting with paragraphs with the topic sentence at the beginning is best.
Authors reinforce the main idea in a paragraph or story by providing additional details, such as examples, definitions, opinions, and descriptions. They often use compare-and-contrast or cause-and-effect to elaborate on the main ideas. It's important to help children identify phrases and sentences that support the main idea. Encourage them to look for words and sentences inconsistent with the main idea. As children progress, consider selecting paragraphs in which the main idea is embedded within the section to increase the difficulty level. When children begin to analyze text, avoid paragraphs where the main idea is implied rather than explicitly stated.
By having children answer thought-provoking questions and supporting their answers using information from the reading passage, they will learn to recognize strengths and weaknesses in their understanding and become better readers and writers.
Reading Comprehension Skills
Comprehension skills are used to analyze content.
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Critical Thinking
Critical thinking requires more effort than simply stating one’s opinion. It is the active process by which people grasp essential information to make informed judgments and decisions. Helping children develop critical thinking strategies and skills is a complex process. In its simplest form, it is about assisting children to think consciously and purposefully about what they are reading while they are reading (or listening).
Effective readers understand that, as they read, they should:
- Thoughtfully and strategically consider the text.
- Use prior knowledge.
- Interpret meaning.
- Monitor understanding.
- Apply what they have learned to novel situations.
- Evaluate the reliability of the content.
Effective readers will spend additional time with a difficult passage. Their central objective is to understand the content thoroughly. They recognize when they have problems comprehending the text and adjust their understanding depending on their reasons for reading, familiarity with the subject, or the difficulty level of their reading passage.
Before Reading:
Browse the text with the children:
- Find words that may be problematic.
- Read topic sentences.
- Develop a preliminary opinion about the content.
- Determine if the text will be easy or difficult to understand.
- Estimate how long it will take to read the material.
- Help children determine the purpose for reading the selection.
Children should know:
- Some books and texts are read for information, while others are read for pleasure.
- They must identify important information when reading nonfiction, such as mathematics, history, and science.
- While reading fiction, they should focus on the characters' actions and feelings, problems and solutions, the cause and effect of the character’s actions, the main idea or moral of the story, the author’s style, and their reactions to different parts of the story.
- Good readers recognize when they are having problems comprehending the text. Their central objective is to understand the content thoroughly.
- Ineffective readers tend to be reluctant to spend additional time understanding difficult passages.
During Reading:
- Ask children to predict what will happen next in the story. Use this strategy sparingly.
- Discuss story elements such as plot, characters, theme, and setting.
- Help children analyze how story elements fit together.
- Discuss the characters’ motives, attributes, and feelings.
- Talk about previous stories the children have read and how they relate to the one they are reading.
- Follow up by asking, "How do you know?" Children should be able to justify their statements by referring to the text. They should cite quotes, paragraphs, and pages in the book or text. If children have difficulty, help them find appropriate citations that support or refute their statements. Say, "Let's see if we can find the passage in the book that will clarify why the author gave you that impression." (This should not be a test. Provide support as needed.)
- To stimulate thoughtful discussion, use the words why, explain, how, classify, compare, relate, when, what do we know, what would we like to know, what was different, I wonder, and support your answer using information from the text.
After Reading:
Children must learn to aggregate information and make inferences from the text. After reading, do the following:
- Guide children in connecting previous stories they have read by asking how they relate to the current story.
- Ask questions such as: "What did you learn? What problems did the main character experience? How was the problem solved? What lesson did the main character learn (if there was a moral)?"
- Follow up with, "How do you know? "Children should be able to explain their answers by citing events in the story.
- Suggest activities that will improve understanding. For example, ask children to draw pictures to illustrate what they read.
- Have children create story maps sequencing the events that occurred in the story.
- Identify the main idea and list supporting details.
- Encourage children to generate and answer questions independently. Those who independently develop questions will learn to formulate and clarify ideas and values, become problem solvers, and think critically.
Note: As an aside, consider having the children write sentences or paragraphs summarizing the story. They should be encouraged to transfer their knowledge into their compositions whenever appropriate.
When children write about a passage from a story or text, have them focus on the content of the answer first. When the content is correct, help them find grammatical and spelling errors and make corrections. Praise them for their efforts throughout the process.
It is essential to provide children with many opportunities to write about what they have read (for example, to explain why something happened or how a character fixed a problem) and to cite information in the passage to support an answer. Writing exercises will improve the children’s comprehension and academic performance.
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking requires more effort than simply stating one’s opinion.
Read more...
Marvi's Way: A Guide to Reading and Spelling is a downloadable reading and spelling program for parents and guardians. Each module comes with two separate workbooks (tutor and student versions) that guide users through 126 detailed lessons step by step. You do not need to be an expert; you will learn to teach reading and spelling as you work through the lessons with your children.
Fluency
Fluency is the term for reading accurately at a good pace and with appropriate expression. Children’s ability to decode text quickly and effortlessly is necessary for reading comprehension. Fluent readers can focus their attention on what the author is saying. Poor readers find reading laborious. They make many mistakes and have difficulty remembering what they just read. Children should be able to read aloud at least 55 - 60 Words Correct Per Minute (WCPM) by the end of first grade (assuming that the text’s readability level is appropriate for first grade). By the end of sixth grade, they should read approximately 146 WCPM. To learn if children are reading on grade level, refer to the target reading rates chart further down this page.
While children read aloud, make critical observations to yourself. Are they comfortable while reading? Was the selection read with ease? Note which words and stories children have trouble reading. Record these observations in a Reading Log. Check previous records to identify recurring problems and discuss them with the children’s teachers. Reading comprehension will be improved once children can read text with ease.
Word Recognition
Accurate, automatic word recognition is essential for reading comprehension and is a necessary fluency component. Word recognition means linking a word's printed representation with its meaning (Stanovich, 1991). Beginning readers rely upon their knowledge of and facility with phonics to recognize words. Struggling readers need to practice phonics skills taught in the classroom regularly.
When children encounter a troublesome word, allow them thinking time to sound out (decode) the word (see Marvi’s Way). If they are unable to decode the word, consider the following:
Help the Child Decode the Word:
If you are trained in phonics and spelling instruction:
- Help children sound out the troublesome word.
- Make sure they understand the word’s meaning.
- Have the children reread the sentence or paragraph before continuing with the story. Rereading provides an opportunity to practice reading the text with ease.
- Record troublesome words in the children’s Reading Logs. Noting which sounds/spellings are problematic will help you identify areas of weakness that require targeted review and practice.
Read the Word for the Student:
If you are not trained in phonics and spelling instruction:
- Have the children independently decode the word.
- After sufficient thinking time, say the word for the children.
- Make sure the children understand the word’s meaning.
- Have them reread the sentence or paragraph before continuing. When their train of thought is interrupted, rereading helps children reconnect with the text.
- Record the troublesome word in the children’s Reading Logs.
Save a few minutes at the end of each session to practice rereading some of the troublesome words. Choose two or three problematic words and have the children:
- Read the word.
- Spell the word aloud.
- Write the word.
- Tell them what the word means and have them use it in a sentence.
Reading Rate
Reading rate is the number of words children can read grade-level appropriate text correctly in one minute. “Many readers struggle to read words easily, so most of their cognitive attention is devoted to decoding rather than reading comprehension.” (Shanahan, “How Important Is Reading Rate”) Reading rate is not the only determinant of good comprehension but can serve as an indirect (proxy) measure.
Facility with phonics improves reading rate. The ability to automatically translate phonetic spellings into the sounds they represent to read words is essential and is developed over time with lots of practice.
The procedure for determining reading rate is straightforward. Select a reading passage appropriate for the children’s grade level. Set a timer for one minute. Start timing when the children begin reading the first word out loud. Avoid interruptions. If they have trouble with a word, wait three seconds. Then, say the word. While children are reading, count the number of words they miss. After one minute, say,” Stop.” Count the number of words read. From this number, subtract the number of words misread. The resulting number is the children’s reading rate (Words Correct Per Minute [WCPM]).
2017 HASBROUCK & TINDAL ORAL READING FLUENCY NORMS
Proficient Reading Rate Progress by Grade Level and Time of Year
| Grade 1 | 29 | 29 | 60 |
| Grade 2 | 50 | 84 | 100 |
| Grade 3 | 83 | 97 | 112 |
| Grade 4 | 94 | 120 | 133 |
| Grade 5 | 121 | 133 | 146 |
| Grade 6 | 132 | 145 | 146 |
One-minute cold readings, passages children read for the first time and have not previously read or practiced, are used in formal assessments to determine children’s reading rates. A more precise evaluation can be obtained by having children read aloud for extended periods. To determine the reading rate, divide the number of words read correctly (N = the total number of words read MINUS the number of words misread) by the number of minutes the children read the passage. (Children’s reading rates R are determined by dividing the number of words read correctly N by the total number of minutes M.)
R = N ÷ M
For example, if the children read for 5 minutes, divide the number of words read correctly by 5. Another way to determine children’s reading rates is to use two one-minute readings of different passages.
Although formal reading rates are calculated using material children read for the first time (practiced materials are not used for testing), rereading is beneficial. Rereading the same text several times helps build fluency and instills confidence. Before assessing the children’s reading rate, explain that reading requires concentration. Children who fidget will discover they can read faster if they sit still. About twice a month, check the children’s reading rates and record them in their Reading Logs, noting which scores correspond to unfamiliar text and which are readings of passages the children have previously read. Discuss scores with the children’s teachers when appropriate.
Reading rates are one way to determine if children are reading on grade level. The minimum rates for children reading grade-level text are listed in the table above. The closer children get to recommended rates, the more confident you can be that your children are learning to decode words automatically. Once children can read at least 146 words correctly per minute, they should be able to read and comprehend text relatively well (assuming they know the meanings of all the words).
Note: Refrain from overly assessing reading rate; it can be a disincentive and cause some children to read fewer books independently.
A Graphic Representation of the Skills Necessary for Fluency
Note: Fluent reading requires accurate, automatic word recognition with a rapid reading rate, skills obtained with practice. Children rely upon their phonics knowledge at the beginning levels of word recognition. Automaticity with phonics (sounds/spellings) will help improve reading rates. (English is an alphabetic language, meaning letters or letter combinations represent English sounds (phonemes). The term sound/spelling refers to these letters and letter combinations. For example, the sound the letter m represents is /m/ (mat, smell, and ham). However, /m/ is represented by more than one spelling (m in the word man or mb in the word comb). Thus, m and mb are spellings that represent the sound /m/. Put another way, m and mb are sound/spellings for /m/.)
Prosody: Reading with Expression
Prosody is the rhythm of spoken language; it includes stress and intonation. When children read text fluently with expression, stopping at appropriate places, and using proper stress and intonation, you can be confident that the children understand what they are reading. When having them read aloud for meaning, encourage children to read with expression.
Modeling (reading phrases, pausing after commas and periods, and adjusting your voice for questions or to express excitement) will help children understand how reading with prosody sounds. Draw children’s attention to various text structures such as commas, exclamation marks, and question marks. Demonstrate how to use punctuation marks while reading aloud. Then, have the children read the same passage, pausing, adjusting the tone of voice, or stopping as indicated.
Note: When timing children to determine WCPM, reading with expression is not a requirement. Record in the Reading Logs whether the children need to work on prosody.
Fluency Practice
Fluency (reading accurately at a good pace and with appropriate expression) develops over time. With consistent practice, children begin to recognize more words, their reading rates gradually increase, and reading becomes less laborious. It is important not to become discouraged if children do not make dramatic progress overnight. Remember, struggling readers need many opportunities to develop their skills. Some may need to reread a story a minimum of three times to read it fluently. If children struggle to read the text after the third or fourth reading, switch to simpler stories.
Encourage children to read at home every day. Consider creating a monthly calendar they can use to note when and how long they read. During the first month of instruction, children should read for at least 10-15 minutes daily. Gradually work them up to reading for 30 minutes or more.
- Furnish books or other materials for the children to read.
- Find time to talk about what they read.
- Regularly listen while they read aloud.
Marvi's Way: A Guide to Reading and Spelling is a downloadable reading and spelling program for parents and guardians. Each module comes with two separate workbooks (tutor and student versions) that guide users through 126 detailed lessons step by step. You do not need to be an expert; you will learn to teach reading and spelling as you work through the lessons with your children.